| Thomas More's most famous literary work, Utopia, was first conceived in 1515 when More was sent on a diplomatic mission to Flanders. The story, inspired by and modeled upon Plato's Republic, has given its name to a whole genre of literature. I do not wish to ignore More's literary and philosophical accomplishments at this page, but I simply don't have the time to discuss Utopia within the context of the following biography. I urge readers to visit the following links to learn about More's work: Read the entire text of Utopia at this link Another electronic version of the text This website lists various essays on Utopia available in electronic format: More about More Click here to read Erasmus's famous description of More in a letter from 1519. Other online biographies of Sir Thomas More: William Roper was More's son-in-law; click here to read his famous biography of More. John Farrow's biography of More The Catholic Encyclopedia's biography of More An eyewitness account of More's execution can be read at the Primary Sources section. You can also read More's final letter, written to his beloved daughter Margaret while he was imprisoned in the Tower. Chronology of major events in More's life: Born 7 February 1478 at Milk Street, London Entered Parliament in 1504 Appointed undersheriff of London in 1510 Became a member of the Privy Council in 1518 Knighted in 1521 Made Speaker of the House of Commons in 1523 Made Lord Chancellor of England in 1529 Imprisoned in the Tower of London on charges of treason in 1534 Executed 6 July 1535 at Tower Hill, the Tower of London Canonized as a saint by the Catholic Church in 1935 |

> '[E]ven though we should have no word or deed to charge upon you, yet we have your silence, and that is a sign of your evil intention and a sure proof of malice.' Henry VIII's attorney-general at the trial of Thomas More, 1535

> > > Thomas More is perhaps the most famous victim of Henry VIII's perverse judicial policies. He was England's most famous and respected intellectual, close friends with the great philosopher Erasmus, and beloved by his closely-knit family and wide circle of friends. He was that most rare of intellectuals - one who was humble, patient, and truly kind; he spent his life in ceaseless study, both intellectual and spiritual, and was a dedicated public servant. He was also an astute judge of character, and capable of witty, trenchant observations - he once said of his famous king, 'If a lion knew his strength, it were hard for any man to hold him.' And, of course, when his son-in-law mentioned Henry VIII's fondness for More, the philosopher noted even more famously that if the king thought 'my head could win him a castle in France it should not fail to go!'

> > > In the end, Henry did not want More's head in exchange for any French castles; he wanted it because More refused to recognize the king's sovereignty over the English church. But Henry had wanted More's approval desperately, and kept his former Lord Chancellor imprisoned for months in increasingly dire conditions, alternating between threats and flattery in desperate attempts to secure More's acknowledgment of the king's new role. Henry knew, none better, that More's approval would carry great weight throughout Europe, and he offered More his life in return for a few simple words. But More refused, and he learned the truth of the medieval adage that 'the king's wrath is death'.

> > > More was the sole surviving son of Sir John More, a prominent lawyer and later judge, and Agnes Graunger. He was born on 7 February 1478 (some sources say 1477), and entered Parliament in 1504. One of his first acts in public life was to speak against one of Henry VII's more austere financial policies; as a result, Sir John was imprisoned and only released after a fine was paid and Thomas retired from public life. After the king's death in 1509, however, Thomas once again entered public service. His early education had prepared him well for such a life. His father had sent him to St Anthony's School at Threadneedle Street, under the direction of Nicholas Holt; upon reaching adolescence, More was sent to the household of Cardinal Morton, then archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Chancellor of England. As Morton was the most powerful man in England next to the king, and the most prominent ecclesiastic, his household was an invigorating blend of political and religious life. It was undoubtedly here that More first learned how to reconcile a deeply spiritual character with a devotion to secular affairs. Morton was living proof that a religious leader did not have to be monkish or retiring; he was also an inveterate gossip, and his twisted tale of Richard III's brief reign inspired More's awful Life of the last Plantagenet king. That biography is the only blight upon More's literary career.

> > > Morton was sufficiently impressed with his young charge to sponsor More at Oxford. The young man entered Canterbury Hall (now part of Christ Church) probably around 1492. His time at Oxford was well-spent; under the tutelage of great scholars such as Thomas Linacre, More studied the classics and classical languages, as well as the other liberal arts. He was a bright and engaging student, enthusiastic about learning but also accustomed to more basic pleasures (he loved to play upon the flute and viol, and began his lifelong passion for collecting pets - apparently his adult home in Chelsea was a veritable zoo.) But like many university students, More found himself constantly short of money, a ploy his father used to keep the young man's mind upon his studies and not other, less academic pursuits.

> > > He returned to London after about two years at Oxford, and entered as a law student at the New Inn in late 1494; in early 1496 he was admitted to Lincoln's Inn as well, and then called to the outer bar and made a bencher. He was once again a successful student, now following in his father's footsteps. He was made a 'reader' (or tutor) at Furnival's Inn, and was successful enough to retain the appointment for three years. But the law was not his true passion, and perhaps More already recognized this fact; he wrote poetry in his spare time, and entered into correspondence with the great English intellectuals of his age. Most of these men were introduced to him through his former professor at Oxford, Thomas Linacre. More's own reputation as a man of learning and wit was already begun, but he was beginning to suffer great spiritual conflict. The law was not wholly satisfying to his character, but religious study might be, or so he thought. Perhaps his introduction to the famous Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus in 1497 spurred his intense personal examination; the men became fast friends, and corresponded until More's execution. Whatever the cause, it is certain that around the turn of the century, More turned his attention to religious matters; he delivered well-attended lectures on St Augustine's The City of God, and was seriously considering becoming a priest. He underwent a dramatic personal struggle, debating whether he had a true vocation, or calling, to be a priest; he left his comfortable home in Chelsea and moved near the London Charterhouse.

> > > At the Charterhouse, More began to examine the possibility of a wholly religious life. He joined the monks in daily prayer, and wore a hair shirt; he wavered between joining the Franciscans or Carthusians, and both orders were particularly dedicated to lives of strictness and denial. Perhaps their extreme fervor dismayed More, for he possessed an ironic wit which would not rest easy with their single-minded worship. Or perhaps he remembered his comfortable home and lifestyle in London. Whatever the case, he decided to abandon his brief dream of becoming a priest.

> > > (It is worth noting that Erasmus later referred to his friend's decision in a letter, writing that More 'chose, therefore, to be a chaste husband rather than an impure priest.' The implication is obvious, but sexual desires are normal enough in young men, and - even if Erasmus is correct - it does not speak ill of More's character.)

> > > After finally deciding that the priesthood was not his true vocation, More returned to his law practice with a vengeance. He was soon enough elected to Parliament, and found himself firmly on the side of his friends, mostly London merchants, as they battled Henry VII's unjust 'grants'. As mentioned at the beginning of this biography, his speeches in defense of the merchants irked the king; as a result of More's persuasive oratory, Parliament lessened the amount from Henry's request of over £100,000 to about £30,000. Immediately, the temperamental king imprisoned More's father upon some pretext, and demanded that the hefty sum of £100 as a fine. More paid the fine, and thought it wise to disappear a bit from public life. He had other, more personal matters to occupy him anyway; in 1505, he married Jane, the eldest daughter of Master John Colte. It was a happy marriage, and Jane bore four children before her untimely death in 1511 (daughters Margaret, Elizabeth, and Cecilia, and son John.) His son-in-law William Roper's biography implies that More married Jane out of pity; he preferred her younger sister, but thought it would bring shame upon the eldest daughter for her younger sister to be married before her. This anecdote was perhaps Roper's attempt to further enshrine More's generous character. In truth, More loved his wife deeply, and two decades after her death he called her 'uxorcula Mori'.

> > > In any case, More was not a widower for long. He was left with four young children to care for, and soon decided to marry again. This time he chose a widow, Alice Middleton, seven years his senior. She had a good dowry and became exceptionally devoted to More and his children. The marriage was quite happy, and Alice maintained the household in London as a refuge for her busy, scholarly husband. More became a renowned 'family man', loathe to leave his home and kin, and truly dedicated to their happiness.

> > > Rowland Lockey's 1593 copy of Holbein's famous portrait of Sir Thomas More and his family

> > > But More's love of family and learning were soon to become secondary to the desires of his king. Henry VIII was crowned in 1509, and More's reputation for learning and wit was already well-known. In 1510, he was made Under-Sheriff of London, and four years later the Lord Chancellor, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, appointed More as ambassador to Flanders. The mission was close to More's heart for it involved the rights of London merchants. But he was unhappy in Flanders; the salary was insufficient for his needs, and he missed his family. But it was in Flanders that he first began his most famous literary work, Utopia; it was published shortly after his return to England and helped secure his fame throughout Europe.

> > > Wolsey and Henry VIII were impressed enough by More's services that they offered him a position at Court. In 1516, after returning from Flanders, he was officially granted a pension of £100 for life, a significant sum at the time. In 1517, the government duties began in earnest - missions to the all-important Calais, and appointment to the Privy Council. Other honors soon followed; he attended Henry personally at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, was knighted and made treasurer to the king in 1521, and secured lands in Kent and Oxford. In 1523 Wolsey secured More's appointment as Speaker of the House of Commons, and a few years later More was appointed High Steward of Cambridge University and Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, all honorable and important offices.

> > > It is obvious that both Henry VIII and Wolsey greatly favored More, though how More himself thought of his government service is unclear. He performed his offices with aplomb, but undoubtedly wished for more time with his family - and even more time with his studies. Life at court held little attraction for him; he was not ambitious (which intrigued the king and Wolsey) and he thought little of the gossip and mad scramble for power which characterized the Tudor court. But he did admire Henry and the king's intelligent and pious wife, Katharine of Aragon. For her part, Henry's queen once commented that, of all her husband's ministers, only Thomas More had deserved the title 'Lord Chancellor', a remarkable comment considering More was the first layman to hold the office.

> > > More first purchased the land for his famous home in Chelsea in 1523; soon enough his mansion upon the Thames was built, complete with a large garden bordering the river. It was here that he retreated as often as possible from court; here, too, that he entertained his many friends, including Erasmus. Often the king would arrive unannounced for dinner and stroll about the garden with More. Despite his later decision to imprison and execute More, it is clear that the king was truly fond of his councilor. Henry enjoyed intellectual debate and More was arguably the most learned man in England; he was also witty and kind-hearted. And for a long while, he basked in the king's service.

> > > The conflict within More between government service and personal time was never fully resolved, though for many successful years he remained a respected and influential friend to the king and an independent philosopher. It was simply that he and Henry, for a long while, shared similar philosophical and religious views. Henry had, after all, jumped to the defense of the Catholic faith with a religious treatise of his own, and thus won the title 'Defender of the Faith' from the pope. More had little reason to suspect that Henry, originally raised as the second son destined for the church, would one day force papal power from England. But in the mid-1520s, More was aware - like everyone in England - that the king's long marriage to Katharine of Aragon was unlikely to produce a male heir. Of the four sons Katharine had borne, all had died - and only the Princess Mary, born in 1516, survived as a viable heir for the Tudor throne. It was clear to everyone - especially the king - that something had to be done, though Henry never envisioned anything as drastic as what has come to be known as the 'Henrician Reformation'. It was only after years of frustration, delays, double-talk, and interference from Charles V that Henry finally denounced the pope's authority on religious matters.

> > > Both the king and More had responded to the growing threat of Lutheranism with religious works (as mentioned above, Henry's work won special praise from the pope.) Today More's work strike us as bigoted and narrow-minded, but it should be read within the context of his time and beliefs, and it is often less inflammatory than other Catholic polemics. Also, the Lutherans were hardly decorous in their prose. More was eventually persuaded to write in English so he could reach a wider audience; he had also watched as the Lutheran 'heretics' wrote in the vernacular and attracted numerous followers.

> > > But More's response to this new heresy was reinforced by the fall of Cardinal Wolsey, once his great patron. Henry's decision to annul his marriage to Katharine of Aragon was simple enough, and quite common among monarchs and other high nobles in Europe. It was a necessary way to end unsuccessful (i.e., childless) unions. Henry had every reason to expect that the pope would grant his petition for an annulment; he even had a stronger claim that most men. Henry could quote liberally from Leviticus, particularly the injunction against marrying a brother's wife. On grounds of strict theology, he certainly had a case for annulment. But he had two problems - a stubborn wife who refused to see reason, and her very powerful nephew, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, who virtually controlled the pope. As a result, the simple matter of an annulment became a major European political issue.

> > > Matters were complicated by Henry's growing - and scandalously open - passion for Anne Boleyn, the daughter of Thomas Boleyn and niece of the duke of Norfolk. More knew the Boleyns well enough for Thomas was an ambassador and well-liked; like More, he was from humble beginnings but used his skill and intelligence to rise quickly in Henry's service. His eldest daughter Mary had been Henry's mistress, and possibly borne his son. Anne, however, was more ambitious than her sister. She recognized the king's predicament; he needed heirs, and she was young and healthy. And Henry loved her passionately, at least for a time. But it is far too simplistic to argue, as many biographers have, that Henry defied the Catholic Church because of Anne Boleyn. The king was dissatisfied with his marriage before they met and there had been talk of an annulment as well. His love for Anne simply gave new impetus to an existing desire to break with Katharine.

> > > Wolsey's hatred of the Boleyns was spurred by jealousy. He had been the king's closest advisor and confidante until his failure to secure an annulment earned royal displeasure. Anne and her supporters were quick to put distance between Henry and the elderly cardinal. Wolsey's time had passed, and he died while on the way to the Tower for trial. And so, in October of 1529, Thomas More became the first layperson appointed Lord Chancellor of England. He was now Keeper of the Great Seal, and second only to the king in power. It was a heady appointment, but More probably greeted the appointment with his usual ironic stance - particularly since he had just witnessed Wolsey's fall from grace.

> > > More did not like the Boleyns. They represented a new generation at court - greedy, flamboyant, and openly ambitious. They were quick to make enemies, and difficult to please. More, who had no love of gossip and admired Katharine of Aragon's deep piety (the old queen spent several hours a day on her knees in prayer), was aware that Henry was drifting from him intellectually and spiritually. Anne Boleyn had come to represent the Lutheran cause in More's mind as well, though not because she was a Lutheran. It was simply that her marriage to Henry would mean defiance of papal law, and would place England in spiritual jeopardy. And so, to More and most Englishmen, Katharine represented the piety and virtues of the old faith, and Anne represented the startling spiritual changes sweeping throughout Europe.

> > > More used his position as Lord Chancellor to wipe out as much of the new heresy as possible; he had always been a great lawyer and judge, and he used these talents formidably. He never equaled Wolsey's power or prestige, simply because Henry had temporarily lost his taste for all-powerful political advisors. But More was completely successful in ridding the English court of cases - he actually exhausted the case log! And, of course, he didn't simply judge cases; he also enforced the existing heresy laws with great zeal. One cannot condemn More for following the tenets of his own religious convictions, and it is worth noting that he specifically distinguished between the vice of heresy and the actual heretic. He hesitated to bring the full force of the law against heretics; he was scrupulous about offering them every possible opportunity to recant. In this he was successful, and only four people were actually executed for heresy during his tenure as Lord Chancellor.

> > > More's religious views were shortly to conflict with his king's desires. Henry was frustrated with the pope's endless delays in deciding his case, and he was determined to establish some control over the church in England. He did not tell More of his plans, preferring to confide in more liberal members of his council and parliament. And so, just a few months after More's elevation to the position of lord chancellor, a new parliament began to pass the sweeping laws which would end the supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church in England. First there was a royal proclamation that all members of the clergy must acknowledge the king as 'Supreme Head' of English affairs 'as far as the law of God will permit'. More realized the threat to his own spiritual beliefs and immediately proffered his resignation. Henry refused angrily, and promised More that he would never have to agree to anything proclamation that went against his conscience. Was this promise a deliberate lie on the king's part? Probably not, for Henry truly believed in the religious righteousness of his own cause and undoubtedly expected all to do the same.

> > > But More could not hold out for long, and nor could Henry - whose designs were becoming more sweeping and offensive to the old faith - ignore his chief minister's open opposition. It was an embarrassment, and in May 1532 he finally accepted More's resignation. By this time, More had lost his close friendship with the king; there were no more impromptu dinner visits, or intense conversations about philosophical matters. It was clear to everyone that a line would soon be clearly drawn, and everyone would be either for or against the king - always remembering, of course, the old adage that 'the king's wrath is death'.

> > > More still had powerful friends and allies, and Henry was always far more eager to have More's cooperation than his disobedience. More was still, after all, the most famous English philosopher, widely read and respected on the continent. And in England he even had the friendship of Thomas Cranmer, the very Protestant archbishop of Canterbury and, along with Thomas Cromwell, the chief advisor to the king. But English Catholics, feeling their faith under siege, were also looking to More as their most prominent champion. And so he was faced with the simple fact that despite his own longing for retirement and personal peace, he was too much a public figure to fade into the background. His opinion mattered too much, and was sought by too many.

> > > After resigning from the lord chancellorship, More had immediately lost a great deal of his income but he scaled back his lifestyle and happily returned to Chelsea. His greatest wish was to simply stay at home with his beloved family and write; he wanted no part in the politics of Henry's court. But he couldn't escape so easily. Still, it is worth remembering that More did not hurry toward his fate; he did not accept death as inevitable and put himself directly in opposition to the king. He wanted to live, and in the following years he did much to avoid his eventual fate - everything except betray his conscience.

> > > For about eighteen months he was able to escape the king's wrath. He stayed away from Anne Boleyn's coronation, deliberately avoiding a public confrontation with the king. And when his nephew, William Rastell, wrote a pro-Catholic treatise, More immediately wrote to Cromwell and Henry denying any involvement. More specifically stressed that he knew his duty as a citizen, and supported his prince completely - too completely to criticize any of his decisions. But such dissembling - and from such a famous man - would not please Henry for long. Soon enough More's name was included in the Bill of Attainder against the Catholic mystic Elizabeth Barton, the Holy Maid of Kent. More had once visited the woman, but was too skeptical to believe in her increasingly dramatic 'visions'. He was brought before the Council and asked about his religious views; he explained that he had discussed his feelings to the king on various occasions, and never incurred Henry's wrath. More was popular enough, and quite innocent, and so Henry grudgingly removed his name from the bill. But he had intended the measure as a warning to More, and it was well-taken. The duke of Norfolk, Anne Boleyn's uncle, warned More that 'the king's wrath is death' and More replied wittily, 'Is that all, my lord? Then, in good faith, between your grace and me is but this - that I shall die today, and you tomorrow'.

> 'Thou wilt give me this day a greater benefit than ever any mortal man can be able to give me. Pluck up thy spirits, man, and be not afraid to do thine office. My neck is very short: take heed, therefore, thou strike not awry for saving of thine honesty.' Thomas More's last words to his executioner, 6 July 1535

> > > Today came quickly for More; in March of 1534, just months after the birth of Henry and Anne's daughter, the Act of Succession was passed which ordered everyone the government called upon to swear an oath acknowledging the legitimacy of Anne and Henry's heirs, and - most significantly - including a clause which repudiated the power of any 'foreign authority' in English affairs. On the 14th of April More was summoned from Chelsea to take the oath at Lambeth; he refused. He was turned over to the custody of the abbot of Westminster, and four days later taken to the Tower of London where he was lodged in the Bell Tower. Months passed, and the king both threatened and cajoled his former friend, sending various emissaries while also keeping More in increasingly dire conditions. More did not break. Imprisoned with John Fisher, the bishop of Rochester, More took strength from that great man's equal courage.

> > > When not entertaining a rare visitor with his wit and charm, More engaged in prayer and writing. In the spring of 1535 Cromwell visited the Tower personally to ask More's opinion of recently-passed statutes which gave Henry the title 'Supreme Head of the Church of England'. More judiciously replied that he was a faithful servant of the king; in June, the solicitor-general interviewed him and reported to Henry and Cromwell that More had denied parliament's power to confer supreme ecclesiastical authority upon the king. Henry now turned both petty and cruel - he used the pretext of More and Fisher's occasional letters to one another to confiscate all of More's writing materials. He was now reduced to writing upon scraps with a stick of charcoal.

> > > The king was further angered when the pope made Fisher a cardinal, essentially a prince of the church, even while the bishop was imprisoned for treason. The king caustically remarked that he would soon send Fisher's head to Rome so it could wear the red cardinal's hat. By now, Henry had pushed aside all thought of popular reaction; he was flush with his own power, and determined to have his way. More refused to submit to royal authority, and he would pay the ultimate price. And so, on the 1st of July 1535, he was indicted for high treason at Westminster Hall. More denied the chief charges and defended himself ably, but it was of no matter. The jury found him guilty and he was sentenced to hang at Tyburn. A few days later news arrived that the king would be merciful - More would instead be beheaded at Tower Hill. On the 6th of July, a bit before nine o'clock in the morning, More was executed; he met his end with great dignity, grace, and courage. His body was buried at the Tower church of St Peter ad Vincula, but his head was parboiled and stuck on a pike in Tower Bridge. His beloved daughter Margaret bribed a worker to give it to her and it was interred in the Roper family vault in Canterbury, Margaret having married William Roper some years before.

> > > King Henry VIII was increasingly tyrannical and hated as his reign progressed. Anne Boleyn was beheaded less than a year after More on false charges of witchcraft, adultery and incest; the king would eventually marry four more times. His fifth wife, Catherine Howard, was also executed.

> > > On 29 December 1886, Pope Leo XIII formally beatified Thomas More, and his reputation for learning and saintliness has only grown.

> > Note: Modern studies of More often discuss his religious conservatism and intolerance of more progressive views. He openly denounced and persecuted members of the Protestant faith, and much of his writing was both vitriolic and inflammatory on this point. But to condemn More for his religious intolerance is unfair. He (and Bishop Fisher, et al) represented the last gasp of Catholicism in England. After his death, the faith never regained its intellectual breadth and stature.
> > In our own increasingly secular age, it is easy to be cynical and dismissive of deeply held religious beliefs. But to judge More by modern standards is obviously wrong; the following books do an admirable job of placing More in the context of his time, and I recommend them to students for further study:

> > The Life of Thomas More
> > by Peter Ackroyd.
> > The King's Good Servant but God's First: The Life and Writings of Saint Thomas More
> > by James Monti.
> > Thomas More: A Biography
> > by Richard Marius.
> > Thomas More: A Portrait of Courage
> > by Gerard B. Wegemer.

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